The remaining dilemmas were extremely diverse, including such topics as exploitation of students, teaching group therapy using experiential participation by students, teachers using questions taken from licensing exams and distributing them to students, and misuse of power by professors or administrators.
Some of the respondents' most bitter language e. Four dilemmas stressed the psychologist's willingness to provide such testimony, and an additional three stressed the attorney's pressures or inducements for this kind of testimony.
Yet another four, although making no inferences concerning the psychologist's motivation, expressed concern about testimony that is not founded on the data or established scientific principles e.
An additional eight forensic dilemmas reflected these tendencies to go beyond the data or to respond to lawyers' pressure specifically in child custody disputes especially to provide custody recommendations based on interviews with only one parent. Unlike the current code APA, , which does not explicitly address forensic settings, procedures, and standards, the draft revision "Draft," provides a separate section with seven subsections on "Forensic Activities.
Twelve dilemmas focusing on research mentioned pressures or tendencies to misstate research procedures or findings. The remainder of the dilemmas involved such diverse topics as mistreatment of animals, established researchers squelching new research, inadequate resources, and the difficulties of conducting research for large organizations in which many employees exert influence over how the research should be conducted.
The current draft revision addresses research issues in much more detail than the current code. Its combined section on "Teaching, Research, and Publishing" contains 15 subsections focusing primarily on research. Four percent of the responses described dilemmas created by disruptive e. Although the draft revision devotes two subsections to the ethics of addressing a colleague's unethical behavior, the profession may need to address more realistically the beliefs and external pressures that lead psychologists to remain complicitly silent and passive when confronted with a colleague who cannot or will not fulfill ethical and professional responsibilities.
In some instances, the "whistleblower" may risk punishing consequences for not remaining silent Simon, , even when his or her critique is offered in the context of formal peer review, a process supposedly created to bring inappropriate, unethical, or harmful practices to light Kleinfield, Four percent of the dilemmas reflected concerns about sexual issues, particularly the conditions under which sexual involvements are unethical.
Sexual involvement with therapy clients e. Part of the difficulty may be due to surprising historical and related factors see Brodsky, ; Pope. Part may be due to challenging methodological issues that have been repeatedly emphasized and examined since the earliest research reports; among these enduring methodological issues are "selective memory in retrospective studies, reporting biases, unrepresentative samples, and distortions in data obtained from secondary sources" Pope, c , p.
Part may be due to the incongruity of therapists placing those who come to them for help at risk for significant harm; the harm can be deep and pervasive, meeting the 10 diagnostic criteria of Therapist-Patient Sex Syndrome Pope, , , This incongruity highlights the problems of responding effectively to those therapists who sexually abuse their clients.
Yet another part of the difficulty may be due to the accelerating evolution of our research-based understanding. Inferences based on research have been modified, as subsequent research findings provide more detailed understanding. For example, numerous variables such as therapist gender, region of residence, and practice setting have emerged as significant in this type of research e.
The long-standing attention to the methodological challenges has prompted researchers to develop creative, diverse research strategies. For example, reviews of research concerning possible harmful effects of Therapist-Patient sex have noted diverse research studies examining. Pope, b , p. Other research has collected data in such a way that "the effects of sexual involvement with a therapist could be compared to consensual sexual involvement with a spouse, long- and short-term extramarital liaisons, and sexual involvements traditionally considered traumatic e.
Although studies of harm were first conducted in the United States, studies in other countries have significantly enriched our understanding of the phenomenon e. Similarly, attempts to understand how frequently Therapist-Patient sexual involvement occurs now draw on national, anonymous, direct-survey data provided by populations of therapists and patients, as well as indirect-survey data provided by therapists about their patients' reports of sexual involvement with prior therapists consequently, this latter group of patients, unlike patients participating the direct-survey research, consists only of patients who have initiated a subsequent therapy.
There's been very little reporting on that" "Dubious Achievement Awards," , p. These works, like those examining pretermination relationships, tended to focus less on transference than on a variety of nontransferential factors.
That the current Ethical Principles of Psychologists APA, do not explicitly address the issue of posttermination sexual involvements has left many psychologists uncertain about APA policy in regard to such relationships. The revision process has not yet produced a clear approach to this issue. As recently as the 13th draft, the revision stated "Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with current or former psychotherapy clients" Task Force for Revision of the Ethical Principles, , p.
As the following examples illustrate, the most typical dilemmas focusing on assessment tended to involve one of two themes: a the availability of tests or computerized interpretations to those who may not be adequately trained in testing, and b basing conclusions on inadequate data or ignoring important sources of data e. In a concise article, Singer illuminated the implications of psychology's scientific tradition for providing effective interventions in a safe manner.
The importance of attending to this aspect of our work is highlighted by dilemmas reflecting respondents' concern about the efficacy, legitimacy, and safety of treatment approaches, modalities, and conditions. Clients approach me to do therapy on them but have problems I'm not really trained to do. Eleven dilemmas in this area reflected concern about ethics, licensing, and related committees. Three described how committees were too slow to take action or were inactive because of such factors as the threat of litigation.
The other diverse concerns about committees included their "presumption of guilt" and "police method," the problem of an ethical violator sitting on the committee, the redundancy of different level i.
The remaining dilemmas reflected concerns that the current ethics code is trivial, that it does not sufficiently address minority values and concerns, that the guidelines are extremely vague, and that it does not reflect adequate concern for clients.
One respondent was particularly troubled by APA's view of homosexuality: "My professional association, the APA, has said that my religious beliefs e. Therefore, should I quit the APA or my religion? These dilemmas tended to reflect psychologists' struggles to act in the best interests of students despite pressure from administrators. Dilemmas in the area of publishing tended to focus on giving publication credit to those who do not deserve it, denying publication credit to those who deserve it, and teachers plagiarizing students' papers for their own articles.
As one respondent wrote,. Respondents expressed concerns about addressing the needs of those who are poor, unemployed, or homeless. Although both the current code and the most recent draft revision address the issue of providing services for little or no financial or other personal gain, no sections explicitly address the ethics of interventions, such as those used by community psychologists or primary preventionists, created specifically to serve the needs of those who are poor, unemployed, or homeless, or who are members of other vulnerable populations e.
Extensive examinations of the ethics of community psychology and related endeavors have begun to appear somewhat more frequently in the professional literature e. Dilemmas in this area reflected concerns about supervisors who were negligent or disrespectful. Dilemmas in this area reflected concerns about how professionals present themselves and their work to the public in a false, misleading, or questionable manner.
Several psychologists, especially in these days of increased competition, Psychology as a profession has enjoyed and suffered a fascinating relationship to the factors affecting its attempts to create and enforce ethical standards for advertising and related activities.
Space permits mention of only one ironic aspect, and interested readers are referred to Keith-Spiegel and Koocher , Chapter 7 for a more detailed discussion of much of this history. The commission then issued an order to restrain APA from disseminating and enforcing a number of sections of its ethics code. Rather than contest the FTC's efforts in court, APA entered into what was described as an agreement to make "emergency" changes in its code "Report of the Ethics Committee," , p.
Publication of the revised code included a card indicating that the Board of Directors, on June 2, , had rescinded and would stop enforcing certain formal ethical standards. The association had agreed to drop its ethical standards in regard to the following portions of the code: 4.
The latter two sections had previously prohibited psychologists from paying colleagues to refer patients to them and accepting such payments, sometimes known as "kickbacks," from colleagues in exchange for steering people who are seeking help to those colleagues and from offering their own services directly to a person who is already receiving similar services from a colleague APA, Dilemmas in this area tended to describe ways in which management interfered with the psychologist's duties, especially instances in which psychologists were expected or pressured to break pledges of confidentiality to employees or survey respondents or in which a company breaks a pledge which the psychologist had conveyed in good faith to remedy problems identified in an employee survey.
One respondent, however, noted what he or she felt to be an interesting conflict of interest: As an organizational psychologist in charge, he or she was responsible for setting his or her own pay.
Examples include,. Although both the current code and the most recent draft revision prohibit discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, race, or culture and the professional literature addresses relevant training and related issues in this area e. Finally, a diversity of dilemmas did not fall into any of the previous categories.
They reflected such concerns as patients troubled by the high public profile of their therapist, radio psychologists giving bad advice to callers, and the "relative normality of suicide as a problem solving option. APA's rich tradition includes the remarkable decision to use its indigenous methods to construct a formal code of ethics. While acknowledging that the "research approach would consume considerably more time than the committee recommendation approach" Hobbs, , p.
This approach helped to ensure that the original code was informed by the day-to-day experiences of the membership increasing the likelihood that members' activities would be informed and guided by the code , and it can play a vital role in revising the code.
Unless guided by contemporary empirical data about the incidents faced by the full range of APA's current membership, the code risks losing relevance and applicability. No code can address every situation, but careful attention to the incidents, concerns, and quandaries provided by the respondents in this study can help minimize those occasions on which a psychologist looks to the code for help in confronting a dilemma and finds it to be unduly silent, dated, or unrealistic.
The distinctive process through which the code and the experiences of our membership are so closely linked is an aspect of our heritage worth maintaining. American Psychological Association. Ethical standards of psychologists. Washington, DC: Author. American Psychologist, 14 Ethical principles of psychologists amended June 2, American Psychologist, 45 Ethical standards for psychology: Section 1, Ethical standards and public responsibility.
Section 6, Ethical standards in teaching. American Psychologist, 6 Ethical standards for Psychology: Section 2, Ethical standards in professional relationships. Section 4, Ethical standards in research. Section 5, Ethical standards in writing and publishing. Ethical standards in clinical and consulting relationships: Part 1. Association for the Advancement of Psychology. FTC's jurisdiction over professions threatened. Advance, 8 Bates, C. Sex in the therapy hour: A case of professional incest.
New York: Guilford. Bond, L. Training preventionists in the ethical implications of their actions. Levin, E. Hess Eds. Binghamton, NY: Haworth. Borys, D. Dual relationships between therapist and client: A national study of psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 20 Brodsky, A.
Is it ever o. If any of the 21 fallacies seems hard to swallow, it may be one that we personally have not yet had to resort to. Sometime down the road at a moment of terrible need, temptation, exhaustion, carelessness, narcissism, anger, lack of perspective, or confusion, an ethical fallacy that once struck us as ridiculous may suddenly emerge as wise, profound, and practical.
What sorts of cognitive maneuvers can transform unethical behavior into the ethical ideal? Here are a few. We encourage readers to expand the list. If someone discovers that our c. This view was succinctly stated by a member of the Texas pesticide regulatory board charged with protecting Texas citizens against undue risks from pesticides.
There are a variety of issues pertinent to tests and assessment and these are discussed, namely cross-cultural applicability and transportability of tests, translation guidelines, telepsychology, computer and Internet-based assessment, privacy and confidentiality, feedback and assessment, test publishers and authors. Begin typing your search term above and press enter to search. Press ESC to cancel. Skip to content Home Essay What are the legal and ethical issues in Counselling?
Ben Davis May 1, What are the legal and ethical issues in Counselling? What is unethical behavior in Counselling? What are unethical Behaviours? How do you deal with an unethical situation and examples? What are the difference of ethical and unethical behaviors among counselors? What does it mean to be ethical or unethical? Why is there construction happening today? The waiter tries to explain, but to no avail.
The air is thick with tension. This seems to please the CEO, who responds with his own derogatory quip. The group laughs. If you were present at that dinner would you let the CEO know that you disapprove of his language and behavior? Would you try to set a better example? Or stay silent? This scene encapsulates three psychological dynamics that lead to crossing ethical lines.
Second, we have cultural numbness: when others play along and gradually begin to accept and embody deviant norms. While it is hard, if not impossible, to find evidence that leaders in general have become less ethical over the years, some are sounding the alarm.
For that majority, moral leadership is not simply a question of acting in good or bad faith. It is about navigating the vast space in between. So how do you know when you, or your team, is on the road to an ethical lapse? Many moral lapses can be traced back to this feeling that you are invincible, untouchable, and hyper-capable, which can energize and create a sense of elation. To the omnipotent leader, rules and norms are meant for everyone but them.
Crossing a line feels less like a transgression and more like what they are owed. They feel they have the right to skip or redraw the lines. Omnipotence is not all bad.
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